Vineyard

The cultivation of grapevines (Vitis vinifera) is one of the most important tree crops in the Mediterranean region, particularly in Greece. People grow grapes not only for wine production but also for table use or raisins. Its long presence in the country has led to the development of a multitude of traditional varieties that are ideally suited to Greek climatic conditions. It is a perennial plant of great economic interest and high added value. The success of its cultivation depends on selecting the right variety, using suitable soil and microclimate, and implementing proper plant protection and fertilization management. The vineyard can have a commercial life of over 30 years, which requires long-term planning.

Botanical characteristics

The vine (Vitis vinifera L.) is a deciduous climbing shrub of the Vitaceae family. It belongs to the genus Vitis, which includes dozens of wild and cultivated species. Vitis vinifera is the dominant commercially cultivated species, with two subspecies: vinifera (of European origin) and sylvestris (wild).

The plant develops a woody trunk and maintains a perennial root system, renewing its annual shoots (vines) each year. The shoots bear nodes with leaves and tendrils or inflorescences in the axillary buds. The leaves are palmate, lobed, or slit, depending on the variety. The flowers are small, greenish, hermaphroditic or functionally female, and organized in corymb-like inflorescences. The plant usually self-pollinates, but wind and insects can aid in cross-pollination.

The fruit is a berry, fleshy, with seeds or seedless, and surrounded by a peel rich in phenols. The variety, environment, and cultivation techniques all influence the chemical composition of berries. The buds are mixed (producing leaves and flowers) and differentiate during the summer of the previous year.

Physiological characteristics

The vineyard is a deciduous plant that exhibits marked seasonal growth, characterized by distinct phases of dormancy and vegetation. Its normal growth includes successive stages: bud swelling, shoot growth, flowering, fruit set, ripening, and leaf fall. The leaves, sensitive to high temperatures and water stress, primarily carry out active photosynthesis. The root system is deep, with the ability to exploit moisture and nutrients from great depths, which gives the plant relative resistance to drought. Vegetation begins when temperatures rise above 10°C, while weather conditions and nutrition strongly influence the critical phases of flowering and fruit set.

Morphological characteristics

The vineyard is a climbing plant that renews its shoots (or cuttings) annually. The trunk is woody and perennial, while the lateral buds produce the fruit-bearing shoots. The leaves are alternate, palmate-lobed, with varying degrees of lobing depending on the variety. The inflorescences are panicles, and flowering occurs in spring, with the flowers usually self-fertile. The fruit is a fleshy berry with shape, size, and color varying depending on the variety. The roots are richly branched and extend to a considerable depth and width, giving the plant stability and the ability to absorb water and nutrients even in dry environments.

Reproductive characteristics

The vineyard is primarily propagated vegetatively through cuttings or grafted plants to maintain the variety’s characteristics. In commercial vineyards, growers systematically use rootstocks (root-bearing clones) to ensure resistance to root system pests, such as leafhoppers. The plant is self-pollinating, with hermaphroditic flowers, which favors stable production. Flowering begins in spring, with temperature and humidity playing a decisive role in the success of fertilization and fruit setting. The berry, which is the final fruit, develops over 3–4 months, during which the sugars, organic acids, and phenolic compounds, which are critical for grape quality, mature.

 

Climate requirements

Vine cultivation requires specific climatic conditions to achieve high yields and quality fruit. You must meet the following climatic requirements:

Temperature

The vine is exceptionally well-adapted to the Mediterranean climate, characterized by its mild, relatively wet winters and hot, dry summers. The ideal temperature range for active growth is between 20°C and 30°C, with bud break typically occurring at temperatures between 10°C and 12°C. Temperatures above 35°C during ripening can accelerate metabolism, resulting in reduced quality of sugars and aromatic compounds. Spring frosts, especially during bud break or flowering, are devastating for the year, causing tissue necrosis or complete loss of production.

Rainfall

Rainfall is considered beneficial only in winter and early spring, when it helps replenish soil moisture. In contrast, summer rains (June–August) are undesirable as they increase the incidence of fungal diseases such as downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola), botrytis (Botrytis cinerea), and shoot rot.

Sunlight

Unobstructed sunlight is essential for photosynthesis, sugar synthesis, and the ripening of berry colors. Areas with high cloud cover or dense vegetation lead to poor coloring, low sugar content, and high acidity.

Wind

Strong winds, although favorable for ventilation, can cause mechanical damage, burning of young shoots, and reduced fruit set, especially during flowering, if they are too strong (greater than 40 km/h).

Moisture

Maintain a moderate relative humidity of 50–70% to prevent the accumulation of free water on leaves and grapes, particularly during evening hours. Increased humidity favors the development of fungal diseases such as downy mildew.

 

Soil requirements

Vineyards can thrive in a wide variety of soils, provided they have good drainage. They prefer medium-textured soils, more than 80 cm deep, with a sturdy structure and without compact horizons. The ideal pH is between 6 and 7.5, although many varieties also thrive in slightly alkaline soils. The presence of organic matter and sufficient levels of micronutrients (iron, zinc, and boron) enhances normal growth and productivity. Avoid heavy, clayey soils that retain moisture in the root system, as well as very calcareous soils, unless you use resistant rootstocks.

Soil preparation

To establish a vineyard, growers must carefully and timely prepare the soil, completing the process at least six months before planting. First, they carry out deep plowing (40–60 cm) to break up compacted horizons and ensure good drainage and aeration of the root zone. Afterward, they proceed with tilling and leveling the land. On sloping land, they may need to terrace or form planting lines perpendicular to the slope.

Based on analysis, they enhance organic matter by incorporating compost or manure (2–4 tons per acre). This procedure follows a comprehensive soil analysis, which helps formulate the basic fertilization plan and addresses issues such as pH, salinity, phosphorus deficiency, or trace element deficiency. In cases of low pH, they apply liming, while in calcareous soils, they incorporate organic improvers and iron sulfate.

Soil disinfection is typically not necessary unless there are visible signs of nematodes or pathogens. Planting occurs after the soil’s moisture and structure have stabilized, typically from November to March.

Basic Fertilization

Basic fertilisation

Basic fertilization in vineyards is typically applied in autumn or early winter, before the vines begin to grow. Its purpose is to provide nutrients for the root system during the active spring growth period. Growers typically include manure and phosphorus-based fertilizers, as well as potassium, while applying nitrogen in smaller amounts, primarily on the surface in the spring. The correct dosage depends on the plant’s age, variety, expected yield, and the results of the soil analysis. In dry vineyards, they prefer granular fertilizer with controlled release.

 

  • Nitrogen (Ν)

    Nitrogen is essential for germination, protein synthesis, and plant vitality. Excessive amounts lead to overgrowth at the expense of fruit production.

  • Phosphorus (P)

    Phosphorus aids root system development, flowering, and fruit sets. It becomes crucial in regions with low temperatures or those with dense soil.

  • Potassium (Κ)

    Potassium is critical for sugar transport, fruit quality, ripening, and plant resistance to stress and disease.

  • Calcium (Ca)

    Calcium strengthens the cell wall structure, facilitates the movement of other elements, and is vital for the overall health of the plant.

  • Magnesium (Mg)

    Magnesium is a crucial component of chlorophyll, playing a vital role in photosynthesis and enzyme function.

  • Sulfur (S)

    Sulfur is involved in the synthesis of amino acids and vitamins, and it enhances the resistance of plants to disease.

  • Iron (Fe)

    Iron is essential for chlorophyll synthesis and respiration. Soils with high alkalinity or high calcium content often exhibit iron deficiency.

  • Zinc (Zn)

    Zinc is involved in the production of auxins and other plant hormones and is essential for the development of leaves and shoots.

  • Boron (B)

    Boron regulates flowering, fruit sets, and sugar transport. Its deficiency causes flower droppings and deformed fruits.

  • Manganese (Mn)

    Manganese acts as an enzyme activator and participates in key stages of the photosynthesis process. In neutral or alkaline soils, manganese becomes significantly less available.

  • Copper (Cu)

    Copper is involved in protein metabolism and is critical for the functioning of many enzymes. Additionally, it enhances the plant’s defense mechanisms against pathogens.

  • Molybdenum (Mo)

    Molybdenum plays a critical role in nitrogen fixation and nitrate reduction. Growers can rarely observe molybdenum deficiency, primarily in acidic soils with low pH levels.

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Foliar applications

Growers use foliar fertilizers in vineyards to quickly address nutrient deficiencies or support critical stages like flowering and fruit setting. Formulations containing trace elements (such as iron, boron, zinc, and manganese) are often applied, especially in vineyards with a history of deficiencies or in soils with high pH levels. Growers typically apply treatments early in the morning or late in the afternoon to minimize evaporation and enhance absorption. They do not replace basic fertilization but are an essential nutritional tool, primarily when the root system is not functioning correctly, such as during periods of drought or low temperatures.

Drip irrigation

Primarily used in irrigated vineyards, drip irrigation effectively supplies nutrients. Growers apply water-soluble fertilizers rich in nitrogen, potassium, and trace elements through irrigation, following the plant’s phenological stages. Drip irrigation enables the more efficient use of nutrients, minimizing losses and unnecessary applications. The accuracy of the method increases efficiency and reduces the environmental footprint of the crop. It is particularly suitable for soils with low fertility or when frequent micro-fertilization is required. A prerequisite is the correct design of the fertilization program, based on the plant’s needs and the results of the analyses.

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The doses and growth stages mentioned are indicative and are always adjusted according to the recommendations of the agricultural consultant. Because rational fertilization is always assessed in relation to:

  • Expected yield
  • Soil characteristics
  • Planting density
  • Environmental conditions
  • Growth stage
  • Plant vigor
  • Cultivation duration
  • Hybrid

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